Chitosan and Titanium Dioxide Are More Effective in Improving Seed Yield and Quality in Nanoparticle Compared to Non-Structured Form: A Case Study in Five Milk Thistle Ecotypes (Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.)

Milk thistle is an important medicinal crop. In this two-year field study, the optimal form [bulk (non-structured), nanoparticles (NPs)] and concentration (0, 50, 100 mg L?1) of chitosan titanium dioxide (TiO2) applications for improving seed yield, as well mineral (N, Mg, Fe, Ti), protein, oil contents were investigated in five ecotypes. Leaf gas exchange, ratio variable to maximum fluorescence (Fv/Fm), hydration also evaluated situ. Chitosan TiO2 improved all traits under with former generally being more effective. When applied NP form, positive effect was stronger. For NPs, a low optimal. Increased status associated enhanced stomatal conductance, which, together Fv/Fm, positively related photosynthetic rate. The yield per plant main capitulum (i.e., diameter, number, weight seeds), number capitula plant. conclusion, improvement quality by application either underlain same components, though their relative importance depends on ecotype. NPs most effective, demonstrating economical, eco-friendly, sustainable means stimulate milk yield.